Not too long ago I happened across a National Geographic show on television discussing recent discoveries in Egypt. The Egyptologists had just found a 2500-year-old tomb, which was undisturbed. They moved the 20,000-pound stone slab to find the inner tomb. Then they moved the 4000 pound lid and found the mummy covered in netted beadwork.1 So then the crew had a decision to make. They called in a preservationist who told the Egyptologist it would take several hours to map out the beads so the net could be reconstructed (the beads were lying in place but the threads had deteriorated). The Egyptologist decided he couldnt wait the mummy was decaying very quickly in the heat. So they wrapped the mummy in plastic foam sheets to protect the beadwork and moved it eight miles to the lab. When it arrived and the foam was removed, it was reveled the beadwork did not survive the trip. The mummy was x-rayed and examined, and within two hours there was next to nothing left except dust. The mummy had indeed decayed.

The reason I relate this story is to illustrate one of the biggest problems in documenting historical beadwork. Beadwork has never been the thing archaeologists go digging for, it is a byproduct of the dig. Conservation of beadwork is very complicated because of the mixture of materials involved. Only recently has technology been useful in the preservation process and then it can only prevent further damage, not repair damage already done.

I have been researching beadwork for years. I have found surviving examples of beadwork in many cultures and at various times throughout history. By examining some of these surviving examples of historical beadwork and the reasons they have survived, we may be able to shed some light on exactly how prevalent beadwork was in past societies.

The Egyptians had a love for beadwork. It is the Egyptians that some experts believe created glass originally and glass is what the majority of beads are made from.2 Despite the fact that some archaeologists do not have time to preserve the beadwork, much of it survives.

It was recently discovered and discussed that one piece of Egyptian beadwork, a beaded dress, was reconstructed improperly. The bead-net dress was found at Qau in 1923-24, and was partially, and incorrectly, strung in the 1960s from an assortment of some 3,000 cylinder and disk faience3 beads and 127 mitra4 shells, plus a pair of "nipple caps." Based on a more in-depth examination of the only other surviving dress, statues, and hieroglyphics, the dress was re-strung in 1994. The fact that the dress survived at all has more to do with it being Egyptian rather than its being beadwork, since it sat in the museum basement in boxes for forty years. If there had not been an interest in what the beads had been used for, the dress never would have been strung in the first place.5

The other fishnet dress was found intact during George Reisners excavations at Giza in 1927.6 The climate in Egypt lends itself to the long-term preservation of many objects. The dry heat will preserve a corpse for thousands of years, the number of surviving mummies attest to the fact.

Back around the turn of the century (1915), a grave was discovered on the Asian steppes. The wonderful thing about the grave was that it was deep enough to have remained frozen year round, and large enough to give researchers a wonderful picture of Asian nomadic life 2,300 years ago.

The grave contained three human bodies; horse accoutrements and carriages; and many household items. The roof of the grave was timber, in an area where no trees grew. There were among many other things, three items of beadwork. The most interesting of them was a womans boot. Almost completely intact, the boot revealed some interesting things about the people to whom it belonged.

The three bead-worked items contained very few glass beads, in addition to some pyrite crystals, but the boot also had several designs around the top edge. When I first looked at the photos and drawings I saw beadwork. After reading the descriptions of the items I was surprised to learn the designs had been constructed by wrapping a sort of tinfoil over sinew and then the whole of it was couched down. The final effect was one of a row of beads. Could this have been some form of poor-mans beadwork? The actual beads on the boot were sewn onto the bottom, the sole, of the boot. It seemed a rather odd place to sew beads but as the author of the book stated "It really only makes sense if one were to sit with the soles exposed, just as women in that area do to this day." The boots were only going to be worn in snow, where the traction the beads would provide would have been of benefit or on fur covered floors where the beads would have been protected and would not have been felt on the foot.

The other item was a bead-speckled bag, used as a mirror case.9 Since mirrors were a rarity, they were prized and since the beads also seemed to have been used sparingly, they were most likely prized also. Though several larger beads were found in the graves, these were the only ones that had been put into use. From the examples found in the burials, the assumption can be made that in this society beadwork must have had some sort of status attached to it.

From the frozen north to the Egyptian deserts, at roughly the same point in time, beads were being used. While the Egyptians seemed to have produced the majority of their beads locally, the nomads on the Asian steppe must have acquired theirs through trade, as there is no evidence they were capable of producing glass beads. Places producing these beads at this time were the Persian Empire and China. Persia is the most likely origin of these beads though, to my knowledge, the beads have not been examined as to origin. Once again we find the beads are only a small part of what was found in the burial site and other items tend to be studied much more thoroughly.10

There are exactly four items which date prior to 1600, are not Egyptian, and do not contain fabric. Two are peyote worked collars dating to 1500 and originating in South and Central America. One is a wall hanging from China done in right angle weave, a stitch only slightly more complicated than peyote but utilizing much more thread. The last is a group of 8^th century plaited baskets from a Japanese temple, formed with just beads and wire.

What these items have in common, aside from their lack of fabric, is their weave. All three of the items on thread are tightly woven, with two or more threads going through each and every bead. Because the weave is tight and very few of the threads are exposed to the surface, and therefore to wear, the items have managed to survive long after other items have deteriorated. The baskets survival can probably be attributed to their ceremonial use, once per year, and their function of holding rose petals at these ceremonies.

Far more non-fabric based beaded objects can be viewed in historical paintings. But while a photograph of an object shows an object as it actually exists, a drawing or painting may show an object that exists in either reality or imagination. A photograph can show an object exactly as it looks to the human eye, with all flaws intact and can be enhanced and rearranged so it bears little, if any, relationship to the item the drawing is based on. With beadwork, as with most things, a photograph can say far more than even the best portrait or sketch, unless the drawing is of thread and stringing patterns through the beads. Far preferable to either a photo or a drawing is to see the object itself, hold it, smell it, examine it hands-on. This will never happen with most items of beadwork. Few existing items will ever be removed from their climate-controlled environments. Few, if any, will ever travel outside their home museums. Many have been photographed but not to the detail required to see the threading patterns. And while historical specialists abound in every field and sub-specialty ever known, there are less than a dozen specialists in historical beads, with even fewer specializing in historical beadwork. Most beadwork is classified with textiles, other pieces with jewelry; more modern items (after 1600) are classed with domestic household items and knickknacks. Beadwork is not a classification of its own.

Having viewed and studied many paintings, drawings, and photographs, in addition to examining and recreating beadwork first hand, there are many conclusions one can come to regarding the preservation of historical beadwork:

1. What one sees in paintings is very different than what has survived the ages.
2. Descriptions of beaded items written prior to 1600 leave us with no idea of what the finished item looked like or how the item was created in the first place.

Photographs dont lie when it comes to beadwork. The best photos, especially digital photos, can show details which could not have been captured before so fine, in fact, one can see thread patterns. Such photographs are comparable to a hands-on examination without the preservation drawbacks. Paintings, while they can show how beads, especially pearls, were used, cannot show us how the beadwork was created, nor can they show us the material of the beads. An artist not familiar with beadwork could draw or paint beads in ways that couldnt possibly have existed in reality. Either the artist rearranged the beads so the piece in question would be easier to portray or the item never existed.

Therefore paintings are of minimum use in determining what forms of beadwork, specifically which stitches and weaves, were known to exist or what types of beads were available. While some embroidery stitches or dress patterns (as examples) seen in paintings may be duplicated with some confidence, the same is not true for beadwork. The bead covers what it is we need to see in order to reproduce an item in the same way it was originally produced.

Worse still is the thought of individual beads not being painted because they distract from the theme or idea the picture is meant to convey. Looking at some beaded objects from several feet away, beaded flowers for instance, one can not see the beads. One may not even know the item is not what it appears to be until they are right up next to it. The same can be said for other artificial means of reproducing flowers. From looking at a painting we will never know if a flower is really there, in full bloom and fresh looking. The flower could have been painted from memory, it could be near dead looking, and it could be silk thread, beaded, metal, or fabric. Unless theres a written description of the painting, or a diary telling us what the artist had to go through to set up the painting, well never know. Even with a written description the material of the flowers, or their origin, may not have been thought worth mentioning.

Some items we know were frequently covered in beads. Mitres, ecclesiastical headwear for bishops, cardinals, and popes, are the best example of this. There are several mitres, most of them German in origin, which are still in wonderful condition.12 The majority of these are covered with beads and metal plaques. A photograph of one even shows it is embroidered with beads on the inside of the mitre.13 To support a widespread use, we can also recognize several statues of church officials, in plaster or metal, where the mitre is done in bumpy relief, clearly to denote a beaded texture. And further, we have paintings of church officials and their mitres, many of which are painted to appear jewel and bead covered. Because we have some actual mitres from the same time period we know these painted mitres much resembled the real thing, as do the three-dimensional statue mitres.

Laces and trims are also items that create problems. Last year I was paging through Queen Elizabeths Wardrobe Unlocked when I came across several pictures of 16^th century lace in which the beads are woven into the lace. But there are several paintings of the same time period showing netting where pearls are at the junctures and appear to have been stitched to the netting after its completion. Was it the practice of the time to add pearls after completion in addition to, or instead of, weaving them into the fabric? Perhaps weaving beads into the lace was fine for glass beads but pearls were sewn on after so they could be moved to another piece of fabric with more ease and without destroying the lace. And perhaps the artists who painted these pictures did not paint the pearls as they really were. We will never know for sure. The only thing we can safely document is beaded lace was used for edging collars on womens dresses and these laces came in many varieties.

The beaded laces just described date to the period between 1500 and 1600, a time period in which the clothing in Europe is well documented; through existing pieces, inventories, and paintings. With the exception of these laces, almost all of the surviving items of beadwork, prior to 1600, are of a religious nature. The reasons for this are quite simple. The churches in Europe were not quick to change. The style of vestments are much the same today as they were in the early Middle Ages. Banners and wall hangings carry the same themes and designs as they have for centuries and wall hangings, when used indoors, do not wear out quickly. A banner, which has a nativity theme, will only be used one month out of the year, and stored the rest of the time. As long as the storage is dry and insect free, a piece can survive indefinitely, and if it is used once a year, it will be cleaned and checked for damage on a regular basis. Since most of the items surviving took a great deal of work to complete, they would be replaced at a slow rate and cherished for years. And because glass beads have no real monetary value, the pieces would not have been broken down and sold in times of financial need.

The following is a list of bead-worked items, in chronological order, primarily from Germany. While the list is by no means exhaustive, it is representative of central European pieces.14  Italy also shows a predominance of religious items while a great number of the items found in Spain have come from tombs.

• 993CE a small reliquary bag with pearls and metal plaques sewn in a geometric design.
• 1000s Golden vestment with pearls and stones in an edging design.
• About 1130 Vestment with design in pearls. Possibly Spanish in origin.
• Early 1200s Maniple15 end trimmed with glass beads in geometric designs. Most likely the beads were woven before stitched, a great number are missing as are the plaques whose indents remain.
• About 1220 Kaiser Friedrichs II gloves embroidered with gems and pearls. Most probably they were made in Italy.
• Late 1200s A chalice done with glass beads, coral, and silver plaques embroidered, and possibly woven, over a wooden form. The only three-dimensional embroidery piece.
• Late 1200s Church vestment with large cross on the back, embroidered with pearls, coral, semi-precious stones, and spangles showing the apostles.
• Late 1200s Altar frontal of the high altar of Halberstadt Cathedral done in a multitude of very colorful glass beads. The metal plaques are missing. Pictured is a man putting a crown on a woman, both are seen with halos.
• About 1300 Altar curtain with a large design embroidered with pearls, coral, semi-precious stones, plaques, and glass beads. From the Cloister of St. Mary.
• Early 1300s Altar curtain of Christ in his Glory, with large pictorial design of saints in glass beads and pearls. Most of the plaques are intact.
• Early 1300s Small stole panels of patron saints (there are three of them) embroidered with coral and glass beads. The plaques are missing.
• About 1330 Mitre with loops and pelicans embroidered in glass beads and pearls. The inside of the mitre also shows bead embroidery near the top.
• About 1340 Top trim on a curtain embroidered with coral, gold plaques, and small red glass beads.
• About 1360 Mitre with long tails embroidered in silk and pearls, showing two bishops and the busts of the apostles. Tassels on the tails.
• Late 1300s Red velvet gown for a small statue embroidered with mostly pearls and metal spangles. There are many of these small gowns in existence; nuns in convents produced most of them over long periods of time. They are usually a mishmash of small decorative metal bits. This one is unique in that it has a panel down the front center, which is more pictorial in its design.
• About 1380 Chasuble cross (in German Kaselkreuz) cloth showing the women at the foot of the cross. Their haloes are done in white glass beads or pearls with gem stones.
• About 1380 Miter of golden silk with a pictorial of the Annunciation in pearls and gold plaques.
• About 1400 Vestment with a geometric design of daisies embroidered in pearls. Also contains metal flowers, stumpwork and spiral gold (also known as purl).
• Early 1400 Altar curtain showing saints Peter and Paul. Relief embroidery with pearls and enameled plaques.
• Mid 1400s Vestment of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Very elaborate embroidery with trimmings in pearl.
• About 1460 Lid of a pyx embroidered with spangles and pearls in the shape of a lamb.
• 1465-1470 Textile thought to be an altarpiece cover with gold and pearl embroidery showing vines and words, with a gold-bead fringe.
• Late 1400s Church Vestment lavishly embroidered with silk and gold thread but also pearls and spiral gold.
• About 1500 a small bag (in German Korporaltasche) with a relief of Jesus and a saint embroidered with pearls, gold glass, and spangles. Also has tassels.
• About 1500 Small relief design for the high altar. Relief design of the holy family with pearls, beads, and gold thread lace edging.

The first thing to notice about this list is every item on it is bead-embroidered. German paintings throughout the Middle Ages show a preference for bead embroidery. Mottoes and words on dress bodices and beaded headgear are the most notable examples.

It is not until the sixteenth-century when examples of non-embroidered beadwork show up in German paintings. The change resulted from a German style of headdress which was comprised of a small decorative cap, usually tight fitting and concealing the hair, and a separate band, or circlet, resting on the hat and tilted over one ear. This band appears in paintings to be a delicate piece of filigree jewelry or beadwork woven on wire. The caps themselves are also portrayed as bead covered. The trend lasted roughly twenty years (1560 to 1580) and was replaced by a more tiara shaped headdress, with the hair exposed. The new shape was created with pearls twisted on wire and filigree gold work.

The other thing to notice about the list is the items used to do the beading. The manufacture of glass in Germany dates to early medieval times. There are records documenting glass production in Nuremberg and Mayen from the 7^th century until 1340.18  About a century later, Leipzig was the leading center of production, notable for sheet glass used in church windows. It was not until the 15^th and 16^th centuries, when the center of production shifted back to Nuremberg, that glass production became important again. The other area of production was Fichtelgebirge in Bavaria, near Bohemia, where beads and other small objects were made in the 15^th and 16^th centuries.

Looking at the listed items and the types of beads used, one notices the strong use of glass throughout the 13^th century right up to the 1340 end date. After 1340 glass beads are used less frequently in the listed artifacts and the use of pearls and gold become more prominent.

Glass beads never seem to recover their importance in the artifacts but it may also be due to a perceived commonness of glass beads. It is at this time (the 15^th century and into the 16^th) we find what appears to be glass beads in more secular paintings. Their every-day use would make glass beads a less favored item for richly decorated church vestments since glass beads would not have the same perceived value and would be less treasured, less likely to be preserved long term.

The list of non-embroidered beaded items seen in Europe prior to 1600 is quite small. The items are mainly rosaries, beaded fringe and tassels, the bead-enhanced laces, jewelry items - especially necklaces, and many styles of headdresses. Many of these items incorporate the same types of beads used in the embroideries, though rosaries generally consist of much larger beads.

A marked preference for bead embroidery over bead weaving is easily seen in Europe. The same preference can be seen in Russia. The pieces surviving are a wide variety of pearl embroidered dresses, church vestments, and coffin covers. Again, we find during the mid-sixteenth-century there is a move toward woven beadwork. First seen on icon covers, pearls were simply woven and then stitched to sheets of gold. Later, the technique was used for earrings and other small and precious items.19 Glass beads do not show up in any quantity, which is not unusual considering the endless supply of river pearls at the time.

An entirely different type of beadwork dominated in the Far East (China and Japan) where beads were used more for household, rather than personal, decoration. It is here we find a hanging, the first intact example of right angle weave, a form of bead-weaving. The wall hanging dates to the Ming dynasty and is remarkably well preserved in light of the fragile nature of bead weaving.

Other items from the Far East include:

While the majority of these items are quite old, there has been very little written about Asian beadwork.20   Only recently has an in-depth study has been made of the Asian bead trade. While many beads are known to exist in China and the area has a long-standing history of bead production, little is known about what the beads were used for or whom they were exported to and for what uses.21  Further research in this area is needed before any real conclusions can be made.

There is a longstanding tradition of beadwork in India and, as we have seen, Northern China had been producing similar, though less complicated pieces several hundred years earlier.23 The connection between the two, if there is any, is still unknown.

In India we find the oldest known literary reference to beadwork. It is found in the 13^th 14^th century writings of the Grantha Sahib (2352) by Nam Dev. The small bit of poetry translates as:

Everything is Govinda

Everything is Govinda

There is nothing without Govinda

Just as there is one thread

And on it are woven breathwise and lengthwise

Hundreds of thousands of beads

So is everything woven unto the Lord.24

India is another country which has yet to be studied in-depth with regards to its beadwork. Here again we find a lack of research into the beads themselves. While we do know India has been a center for bead-making, particularly stone beads, for thousands of years, we have very little knowledge of what the beads were used to create or if the beads were made for export. It is possible historical examples exist but have not been written about in the West. Statues of the Buddha, originating in India in the Middle Ages, show interesting beaded designs on the forehead and around the ankles, leading one to believe beaded articles existed and could be quite complicated in design.

African beads have been studied in-depth. Since a great number of the beads were imported from European trade centers, it is much easier to determine the age and extent of bead use. What is difficult to determine is what was done with the beads once they had been traded or sold to Africans. If the beads used were not of European origin or they were poorly documented, then it can be difficult to determine age of an item. Coupled with the fact that in many places beads were recycled many times, establishing the age of a beaded object can be next to impossible. Little is known about the early uses of beads on the African continent and early extant pieces are not in evidence at this time.

In the past decade many beaded items have been taken out of small boxes, out of museum basements, dusted off, and studied. This is good news for researchers interested in beadwork. In the past decade the number of specialized books on the subject of beads has nearly tripled. People have started to take an interest in beads and beadwork and what we know about the origins of these items changes greatly from year to year. In 1979 Kenneth Kidd wrote a time line of important dates in the history of glass beads. He dates the first use of beads in embroidery at 1296 and notes early bead colors were red, white, and green. We now know he was off by several hundred years and a number of colors. Things are starting to look up for bead researchers everywhere. Now we just have to figure out in what box the beaded net from the Egyptian tomb ended up in. And to which museum it was taken. At least this time we have photographs to aid us in the reconstruction process.

Endnotes: